Overview of the Branches of Chemistry

Overview of the Branches of Chemistry There are several branches of chemistry. Here is a list of the main branches of chemistry, with an overview of what each branch of chemistry studies. Types of Chemistry Agrochemistry - This branch of chemistry may also be called agricultural chemistry. It deals with the application of chemistry for agricultural production, food processing, and environmental remediation as a result of agriculture. Analytical Chemistry - Analytical chemistry is the branch of chemistry involved with studying the properties of materials or developing tools to analyze materials. Astrochemistry - Astrochemistry is the study of the composition and reactions of the chemical elements and molecules found in the stars and in space and of the interactions between this matter and radiation. Biochemistry - Biochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the chemical reactions that occur inside living organisms. Chemical Engineering - Chemical engineering involves the practical application of chemistry to solve problems. Chemistry History - Chemistry history is the branch of chemistry and history that traces the evolution over time of chemistry as a science. To some extent, alchemy is included as a topic of chemistry history. Cluster Chemistry - This branch of chemistry involves the study of clusters of bound atoms, intermediate in size between single molecules and bulk solids. Combinatorial Chemistry - Combinatorial chemistry involves computer simulation of molecules and reactions between molecules. Electrochemistry - Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry that involves the study of chemical reactions in a solution at the interface between an ionic conductor and an electrical conductor. Electrochemistry may be considered to be the study of electron transfer, particularly within an electrolytic solution. Environmental Chemistry - Environmental chemistry is the chemistry associated with soil, air, and water and of human impact on natural systems. Food Chemistry - Food chemistry is the branch of chemistry associated with the chemical processes of all aspects of food. Many aspects of food chemistry rely on biochemistry, but it incorporates other disciplines as well. General Chemistry - General chemistry examines the structure of matter and the reaction between matter and energy. It is the basis for the other branches of chemistry. Geochemistry - Geochemistry is the study of chemical composition and chemical processes associated with the Earth and other planets. Green Chemistry - Green chemistry is concerned with processes and products that eliminate or reduce the use or release of hazardous substances. Remediation may be considered part of green chemistry. Inorganic Chemistry - Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the structure and interactions between inorganic compounds, which are any compounds that arent based in carbon-hydrogen bonds. Kinetics - Kinetics examines the rate at which chemical reactions occur and the factors that affect the rate of chemical processes. Medicinal Chemistry - Medicinal chemistry is chemistry as it applies to pharmacology and medicine. Nanochemistry - Nanochemistry is concerned with the assembly and properties of nanoscale assemblies of atoms or molecules. Nuclear Chemistry - Nuclear chemistry is the branch of chemistry associated with nuclear reactions and isotopes. Organic Chemistry - This branch of chemistry deals with the chemistry of carbon and living things. Photochemistry - Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with interactions between light and matter. Physical Chemistry - Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that applies physics to the study of chemistry. Quantum mechanics and thermodynamics are examples of physical chemistry disciplines. Polymer Chemistry - Polymer chemistry or macromolecular chemistry is the branch of chemistry the examines the structure and properties of macromolecules and polymers and finds new ways to synthesize these molecules. Solid State Chemistry - Solid state chemistry is the branch of chemistry that is focused on the structure, properties, and chemical processes that occur in the solid phase. Much of solid state chemistry deals with the synthesis and characterization of new solid state materials. Spectroscopy - Spectroscopy examines the interactions between matter and electromagnetic radiation as a function of wavelength. Spectroscopy commonly is used to detect and identify chemicals based on their spectroscopic signatures. Thermochemistry - Thermochemistry may be considered a type of Physical Chemistry. Thermochemistry involves the study of thermal effects of chemical reactions and the thermal energy exchange between processes. Theoretical Chemistry - Theoretical chemistry applies chemistry and physics calculations to explain or make predictions about chemical phenomena. There is overlap between the different branches of chemistry. For example, a polymer chemist typically knows a lot of organic chemistry. A scientist specializing in thermochemistry knows a lot of physical chemistry.

2 Easy Tips to Remember Reoccurring vs Recurring

2 Easy Tips to Remember Reoccurring vs Recurring SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips You’ve likely seen the word "recurring," but what about "reoccurring"? Is this word just a synonym for the former, or does it mean something different? In actuality, there's a lot to learn when it comes to reoccurring vs recurring. Read on to get more information about the similarities and differences between these two words, what they each look like when used in writing, and how you can know when and how to use them. Reoccurring vs Recurring: What's the Difference? The words "reoccurring" and "recurring" might look very similar, but they’re not exactly identical in meaning to each other- at least, not always. Let's start by looking at the "recurring" definition. "Recurring," which you’ve likely seen more often, is an adjective and verb that refers to something that happens again, usually repeatedly or at regular intervals. Its basic verb form is "recur." For example, you could describe a theme that comes up many times in a story as a recurring theme. Or you could call a dream you have again and again a recurring dream. Meanwhile, the adjective and verb "reoccurring" refers to something that happens again- but not necessarily repeatedly or periodically. This word originally comes from the verb "reoccur," which is simply the verb "occur" with the prefix "re" (meaning "again") attached to it. For instance, people might fear that a natural disaster will reoccur in their area (in other words, they fear it will happen again after having happened at least once). To sum up, although both "recurring" and "reoccurring" have similar definitions in that they each describe something happening again, "recurring" typically points to something that happens repeatedly or regularly, whereas "reoccurring" does NOT have any such implication. Now, let’s check that you understand these nuanced differences with reoccurring vs recurring by looking at an example: A recurring problem vs A reoccurring problem The first phrase, "a recurring problem," means that the problem has likely happened multiple times already and continues to happen or seems likely to continue happening. The second phrase, "a reoccurring problem," suggests that the problem likely happened at least once and is now happening again- but without any hint that it will continue to happen or is happening on a regular basis. Now that you've got a better grasp of reoccurring vs recurring, let's look at the history of the two words (that is, their etymology). A Brief History of Recurring vs Reoccurring As it turns out, the histories behind the words "reoccurring" and "recurring" are pretty similar. Both "recur" and "reoccur" come from the Latin word currere, which means "to run." As a result, both words mean "to run again," with "run" acting as a synonym for "happen." "Recur" is the older of the two, originating in the early 16th century, while "reoccur" came about in the 18th century. Because the word "recurring" is older and far more common than "reoccurring," there has been debate about whether "reoccurring" (and "reoccur") is an actual word. Though several older dictionaries don't have an entry for "reoccur" specifically, many recent editions do (or, at the very least, list it as a variation of "occur" under the prefix "re"). Here is an overview of the different forms for reoccurring vs recurring: Root Word/Verb Adjective Noun Verb + ing recur recurring recurrence recurring reoccur (prefix re + occur) reoccurring reoccurrence reoccurring Birthdays (and therefore birthday cakes!) recur each year. Real Examples of Recurring and Reoccurring Even though "recurring" is a more common word than "reoccurring," both words appear often in real-life newspapers and online news sources. Here, we give you several examples to show you the different uses of "reoccurring" and "recurring." Note that, in some cases, the words "recurring" and "reoccurring" are used as adjectives while in other cases are used as verbs. You’ll know a word is an adjective if it’s being used before a noun. I’ve also included a couple of examples that use the noun forms of both words ("recurrence" and "reoccurrence"). All bold emphasis in the following quotations is my own. "A new book claims understanding the meaning of these recurring dreams will transform your life." (Daily Mail) "Identify ways to keep it from reoccurring in the future, and clearly communicate the message to your entire team." (Huffington Post) "However, normal grief will always have moments of reoccurring sharpness, pain as raw as the very first day." (Huffington Post) "A reoccurring back injury limited his playing time in 2003 and 2005." (New York Times) "For instance, along with investing spare change from purchases, Acorns encourages customers to make a recurring investment of as little as $5 a month." (Los Angeles Times) "For many women who thought they had beaten breast cancer, the news that it has roared back years later comes as an especially cruel diagnosis with no clear answers for why or how it recurs." (Science Daily) "The 'Great Flood' of 1861 to 1862 is becoming more likely to reoccur as the climate warms, a new study finds." (Mashable) "Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez has confirmed that he has suffered a recurrence of the cancer he was treated for last year." (BBC) "Regulators are expected to put in place in the coming days new rules aimed at preventing a reoccurrence of last month's stunning stock market 'flash crash.'" (Seattle Times) Reoccurring or Recurring? 2 Tips for Using Both Words To wrap up, we give you two tips to help you know when and how to use both "recurring" and "reoccurring." #1: Memorize Set Phrases It can be helpful to familiarize yourself with common phrases out there that use either "recurring" or "reoccurring" (though the former is far more likely). Here are some set phrases with the word "recurring" that will likely come up often in everyday situations: Recurring dream Recurring theme Recurring character Recurring illness Recurring decimal Recurring payment Although there aren’t nearly as many set phrases with the word "reoccurring," I have noticed that many news sources use the phrase "prevent the reoccurrence of ~." The phrase seems to be used most often when referring to a one-off incident, problem, or catastrophe that has the risk of happening again. Nobody wants a stock market crash to reoccur! #2: When in Doubt, Use Recurring If you’re really not sure whether you should use "recurring" or "reoccurring," it’s always better to go with "recurring." Not only is this particular word more commonly used, but it also has a much broader meaning than "reoccurring" does. Remember that "reoccurring" refers only to something that happens again, while "recurring" can refer to something that happens again, possibly repeatedly or at regular intervals. Because "recurring" has a more diverse definition, it’ll always be the safer bet! What’s Next? You've likely heard of metaphors, but how do they differ from similes? Check out our detailed metaphor vs simile guideto learn just how different these two literary devices really are. What exactly is an oxymoron? See real examples of oxymorons from literature and learn how to use them in your own writing. Prepping for the SAT? Then you'll definitely want to look at our comprehensive list of the 262 SAT vocab words you must know. Have friends who also need help with test prep? Share this article! Tweet Hannah Muniz About the Author Hannah received her MA in Japanese Studies from the University of Michigan and holds a bachelor's degree from the University of Southern California. From 2013 to 2015, she taught English in Japan via the JET Program. She is passionate about education, writing, and travel. Get Free Guides to Boost Your SAT/ACT Get FREE EXCLUSIVE insider tips on how to ACE THE SAT/ACT. 100% Privacy. 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Current Issues in Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Current Issues in Finance - Essay Example As the paper highlights not to miss mentioning is the news of UK Prudential closing $35.5B takeover bid of AIG Asian due to pressure from the shareholders to lower the bid asking rate by $30B. Market was not in favor of clinching the deal, as after cancelling the deal, Prudential’s shares rose by 6.3% on Tuesday. At the same time, the ending of the takeover bid was a blow to the AIG efforts to pay back the loan of $132 billion to the Treasury from the proceeds of the sale to Prudential, which was taken to save the AIG from collapsing from the financial crisis in 2008. This discussion outlines that there could be a number of reasons attributed to a merger or acquisition wherein payment is made through stock. Companies are acquired with the aim of safer income streams, as cost of debt could be very high and banks won’t be forthcoming with the offer of reduced rate of interests. Mergers where price/earning ratio (P/E) is very high are not welcomed because of the fear of loss of income over share price. If a company’s stocks are an all-time high, in stead of paying cash it offers its new stock shares. But sometimes it becomes all the more difficult for the buyer company to evaluate the target company as the stock price of the target company rises due to the possibility of merger bid. Answers to the above questions can be reached at by analysing the cases of acquisitions and mergers in the literature in the recent past on the financial and valuation aspects of such acquisitions and mergers. There could be number of motives behind an acqui sition. Diversification in a different line of business has been an aim to be achieved through acquisition.

Occupational Safety and Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Occupational Safety and Health - Essay Example Department of Labor, Occupational Safety & Health Administration). For achieving the specified reductions in the incidence of fatalities, injuries or illnesses OSHA will adopt a dynamic methodology for identifying and addressing the target sectors and hazards which require direct intervention. Though Direct Interventions are an integral part of workplace safety and health, however lasting solutions should be there for the employers, workers to inculcate the safety and healthy culture in the workplace. OSHA would ensure that the resources devoted to achieve this goal should have the ability to replicate the agency’s effectiveness through the instillation of safety and heath values among the broad population through strict compliance, innovation and dedication. OSHA should improve its intelligence gathering, analytical and evaluation capabilities and should also ensure that they inculcate in their staff the requisite knowledge, skills, diversity and the abilities to address the concerned health and safety issues through the use of informational technology and other supportive systems (U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Safety & Health

The following is an analysis of the IKEA Essay Example for Free

The following is an analysis of the IKEA Essay The following is an analysis of the IKEA case study found in the Strategic Management Text book. This analyses the strategies used by IKEA to gain competitive advantage in markets outside its original area. The report begins by providing a background into IKEA. It studies International Business Level Strategy and the three international corporate level strategies. The case study goes into informing its target market and pricing strategy, which is already discussed. This case study further says how different people in different parts of the world thinks about IKEA, how elegant their designs are and how affordable for them to purchase IKEA products. Some of IKEA’s main markets are in three of the fastest growing markets such as Russia, US and China. IKEA store bring out products such as furniture to small product like a scented candle. IKEA has over 1300 suppliers in about 53 countries. They further have 12 full time in- house designers with 80 free lancers and other production workers to identify the correct raw materials and produce products ef? ciently and cost effectively. Primarily, IKEA produced standardized products however; this international strategy did not work for one of its vital markets that is, US. Therefore, they had to emphasize on taking corrective actions. The report also analyses the entry methods used by IKEA and its sustainability. IKEA was founded by Ingvar Kamprad a native of Sweden in 1943, when the founder, at the age of 17 was given money by his father in return for doing well in his studies. This money was used to start up his own company, IKEA, which stood for his intials and the ? rst letters of the farm and village in which he grew up. The company initially sold basic items such as pens, picture frames, table runners, wallets, jewellery, nylons stockings and watches, at a low price(History of ikea, 2010). Furniture was ? rst introduced into the IKEA range of products in 1948, and due to a positive response, the product line increased in size. Customers were allowed the ability of viewing and touching the furniture that was previously only viewable through catalogue. IKEA opened a showroom in Sweden to create a competitive advantage, due to a price war with their main competitor, so that customers could determine whether they were getting value for money. Finally IKEA made the decision to design its own furniture due to competitors trying to make suppliers boycott IKEA products. The â€Å"? at-packs and self assembly† concepts arose when an employee disassembled a table in order to prevent damage during transport (History of ikea, 2010). In 1963 the ? rst IKEA store outside of Sweden was established in Norway. From this point on, IKEA began to spread like a wild? re, ? rst to Denmark, then Switzerland, Germany, Australia, Canada, Austria and Netherlands. Many alliances were struck up with different suppliers in order to introduce new products, together with new concepts, which led to costeffectiveness. One example was an innovative, multifunctional seat/recliner, which was made by utilizing a denim, a raw material from another industry, which could be obtained at a low cost. In 1980, together with the new furniture concepts being born at certain intervals, IKEA was looking to expand to further markets, and did so through franchising. To ensure continuation and long term independence of IKEA, the founder created a new ownership structure and organisation. The major portion of IKEA was donated to a foundation, while the right to franchise the IKEA concept worldwide remained with the IKEA group of companies. In the 1990’s, the IKEA market expanded not only geographically, but in terms of target market. The company began to design furniture that catered expressly to children. A website was launched to cater to the many markets that were now open, and the children’s line was enhanced on consultation with experts on with experts to develop play areas, room settings, and baby areas within the stores themselves. Kitchen-ware and kitchen areas were another concept developed in this period. IKEA also began participating in a number of forestry projects to ensure sustainability, by taking responsibility for developing acceptable practices and policies in countries where IKEA works. IKEA Case Study 4 Company Outline IKEA is a world renowned furnishing company reputed for selling Scandinavian-style furniture and other home-based goods. The company has 230 stores, with operations carried out in over 42 countries with well over 70 000 employees. The stores themselves can host 410 million shoppers per year. It is a Swedish based company built on the idea of offering a wide range of well-designed, functional home furnishing products such low prices, that a majority of people will be able to afford them. The IKEA group is currently solely owned by the INGKA Foundation through a holding company, unlisted on any stock exchange. The vision at IKEA is to â€Å"create a better everyday life for the many people†(Ikea, 2011). The main business of IKEA supports this vision, by the manufacture and selling of a wide range of home furnishing products at an affordable price. Since the ethos of IKEA is to make good quality products at an affordable price, the company has succeeded in development of costeffective and innovative production methods. This has been the company’s focus since its inception, and the company has succeeded in doing so by making the maximum use out of raw materials, and adapting the products to meet people’s needs. 04-02-18 Currently, in addition to the historical additions to the IKEA range, customers can now shop online. Other innovations include 2 the boards with patterns created on them directly, called â€Å"print on board†, in addition to a concept known as â€Å"product !! Expert where returned products are repaired instead of equipment etc where possible. recovery concept†functions such as IT, food services, retailbeing thrown awayoperates under economies of scale and is supportive to the basic operations !! IKEA of Sweden AB is responsible for the range design, purchase from etc The majority of the operations occur within the retail business; while IKEA does developmentexternal suppliers, in addition !! Inter IKEA systems B. V (The Netherlands) owns the IKEA concept and trademark which the company produces its own products through their industrial group known as Swedwood. is bought by the retail operations but is also sold to outside operators on a franchising basis !! The furniture is purchased through purchasing operations (trading service offices) in 33 countries with 1800 suppliers in 55 countries. !! The distribution operations covers 25 regional distribution centres in 14 countries supplying goods to the stores !! The retail operations are geographically organised with a specific organisation for Retail Europe

Essay --

CRITICALLY EVALUATE THE MAIN INFLUENCES ON OCCUPATIONAL CHOICE AND THE CONTENTION THAT INDIVIDUALS HAVE THE FREEDOM TO CHOICE Introduction: Occupational choice is the most important decision for one person with out any doubt which could be made in a person's life time. In about 1951 or more back, Ginzberg et al carried out a major study research regarding the occupational choice, which now in the 21st century is known as the originating theories on the topic. '' Waliam stated that It is very Important and Crucial at times to determine the standard of living, the income, the quality of ones life, self esteem, social relationship, the environment and also its crucial to determine whether the child of a particular family would enter which occupation field'' (Williams 1974:15) Stating above by Williams (1974), it is reflecting that how a person is satisfied within his/her working environment and it could be often previewed that the other aspects of that particular persons lives will follow on from this. This essay will firstly explain the occupational choice, then it will address its theories and how they are developed and contrasting opinions and further moving down it will explain the freedom of choice for the individuals and argue on it. Jackson(2001) said that people from higher class positions could use their non merits benefits to obtain their certain positions. Goldthrope said that pupil from less advantage class need to show more merits than pupil from more advantaged class in order to obtain the same position. Achieved roles are those roles which are achieved and gained for themself and are f... ... the best job for one person as it maybe not percieve to others. Wilson(2010) states the problem of race. The EHRC research report found that the black Caribbean boys and White people have achieved bad grades(EHRC 2010) where as Haw(1998) explained from her research that some were confused with Muslim pupls Treatment.(Ambercrombie and Warde 2003:474-5). The ninety percent of women in its role of The Royal Army force now offers them where as the Navy and the Army have about three quarters to both the females and males. Womens are mostly looking for Self fulfilment for their occupations. (Watson 2003:194).Timperley and Gregory (1971) had recently research that about three to four times females want to go into education or further studies after school where as males are different they want to find a job and go straight into the labour market or work.(Wilson 1974:193).

Internet Fraud Essay

The Internet is recognized as tremendous means for investors, students, and common people to easily, economically and efficiently access plenty of source and opportunities to accomplish their task. In parallel, it also invites fraudsters to grab excellent opportunity to become rich by applying impostor schemes. Among its many uprising effects, the Internet has changed the manner in which investors learn of and research prospective investments (Richard H. Walker, pg 405). As Internet is growing explosively, online criminals try to present fraudulent plans in ways that look, as much as possible, like the goods and services that the vast majority of legitimate e-commerce merchants offer. Internet fraud is simply the extended actions that subsisted long before information technologies broke into the sphere of cyberspace (Jason Whittaker; pg: 232). These fraudulent tricks are continually threatening to Internet users and it will not be surprised when people will loose faith on Internet business in future if proper measures are not taken to curb these acts. In present scenario, there is a necessity to arrest numerous Internet frauds by creating awareness among people, and to protect them from being victimized by genius fraudulent. People take notice of frequently in their surrounding that some or other person is gripped under E-mail Spam or credit card fraud. For smooth working on Internet and entirely utilizing such a vast technological advancement, everyone must be geared up to combat any challenge. Thus the present paper concentrates on how Internet fraud tactics emerged, various ways these frauds have been executed while working on Internet and develop ability to escape from fraud by adopting control measures. Basically Internet fraud is a type of fraud scheme that uses one or more technique of the Internet such as chat rooms, e-mail, message boards, or Web sites to present fraudulent solicitations to potential victims, to conduct fraudulent business, or to pass on the proceeds of fraud to financial institutions or to other connected with the scheme. Very often it has been observed that fictitious merchants publicize goods for very low prices and never deliver. Victims are then left to deal with credit card companies for recompense. Fraudsters are very clever and choose small and expensive products, such as watches, jewelry, laptops, digital cameras, vehicles and camcorders. These items are usually available in the market in broad range and can easily be purchased by anyone. Internet has several traits, which provides fabulous benefit to the global economy and to people around the world. These same positive qualities also make the Internet a near-perfect implement for fraud such as the regular and omnipresent availability of the Internet and its vast content, the broad distribution of Internet access, and the simplicity with which such access can be established. Other facilities like the rapidity with which content can be published and delivered online and the almost complete physical detachment between Internet content and the individual or entity selling that content, also attract fraud shooter to be successful in their mission (Emile Loza, pg:55). People seek to take benefit of the Internet’s exceptional potentials for example, by sending e-mail messages worldwide in seconds, or posting Web site information that is readily accessible from anywhere in the world. These advanced techniques provide fraudster to carry out various types of fraudulent schemes more quickly than was possible with many fraud schemes in the past. The Internet fraud trade is thriving at the Federal Trade Commission where the agency gets thousands of complaints each month from individual and business consumers deceived by online operators. The FTC is quite alert and already has taken action to prosecute plenty of Internet fraud cases. The FTC’s vigorous prosecution of Internet fraud shows few signs of dwindling, with new cases announced almost every day ( Richard H. Walker,pg:- 405). Those spreading fake and deceptive statements online, intending to affect a stock’s price, do not realize that the securities laws apply to their conduct. Perhaps some view fraudulent acts as less immoral in the impersonal world of the Internet where victims are faceless, distant, and known only by a screen name. Others may fail to appreciate the harm their actions may cause innocent investors. The SEC has faced a host of novel, but unsuccessful, arguments from those engaged in Internet securities fraud seeking to justify their conduct. These arguments include claims that the First Amendment protects all speech online; that trumpeting a stock online is no different than what Wall Street analysts do daily; and that the federal securities laws do not apply neatly to conduct in the new online world ( Richard H. Walker, pg: 405). Internet fraudsters use numerous ways to trap innocent Internet users in their web. Fraudulent schemes appearing on online auction sites are most recurrent form of Internet fraud reported by the Federal Trade Commission and Internet Fraud Watch. Initially, auction sites had tended to take a lenient attitude to activities on their sites, where buyers did not receive goods, incited many of them, such as QXL, to remove fraudulent sellers. Nor are all auction scams particularly small: one of the most celebrated was the sale of a fake Richard Diebenkorn painting on eBay in 2000 for $135,000, with fraudsters offering fake bids to drive up the price (Jason Whittaker; pg: 238). Business Opportunity/†Work-at-Home† Schemes Online type of fraudulent schemes often use the Internet to market supposed business opportunities that will allow individuals to earn thousands of dollars a month in â€Å"work-at-home† ventures. These schemes classically entail the individuals to pay wherever from $35 to several hundred dollars or more, but fail to deliver the materials or information that would be needed to make the work-at-home prospect a potentially practicable dealing. In identity Theft and Fraud, various Internet rackets also engage in identity theft. They obtain and use someone else’s personal data in illegal way that involves fraud typically for economic gain. Internet user does not even know that his information is being misused by someone. Under Market Manipulation Schemes, Cheaters use two basic methods for trying to manipulate securities markets for their personal profit as indicated by the Securities and Exchange Commission and criminal prosecutions. At first, in very popular â€Å"pump-and-dump† schemes, they in general propagate forged and fraudulent information in an effort to cause striking price increases in thinly traded stocks or stocks of shell companies then immediately sell off their holdings of those stocks to realize substantial profits before the stock price drops back to its original low level. Second, in short selling or â€Å"scalping† schemes, which takes a similar approach, by propagating false or fraudulent information in an effort to cause price decreases in a particular company’s stock. One of the most outspoken of this new breed of cyber-scofflaws has been Jonathan Lebed, who at age fifteen was charged with securities fraud by the SEC. The Commission charged Lebed with using the Internet to devise a series of â€Å"pump and dump† manipulations. Lebed repeatedly bought low-cost, thinly-traded stocks. He then used the Internet to spread hundreds of false and deceptive messages concerning the stocks- generally baseless price predictions- for the affirmed purpose of driving up, their prices ( Richard H. Walker,pg:- 405). Crackers in the mid 1990s invented phishing to steal AOL accounts â€Å"Phishing† is the act of attempting to deceitfully obtain sensitive information, such as passwords and credit card details, by masquerading as a reliable person or business with a genuine need for such information in a apparently official electronic notification or message (most often an email, or an instant message). It is a kind of social engineering assault. To conduct this fraudulent scheme, the message is mailed and the victim is asked to reveal his or her password, for the purpose to verify your account or to confirm billing information. Once the victim provides the password, the assailant gets success and accesses the victim’s account and utilizes it for illegal intentions, such as spamming. With phishing, pretext e-mails are sent to consumers by the millions. Lawful addresses are either purchased on the â€Å"cyber black market† or parsed together by programs that at random join common last names and first initials with common domains mark@gmail. com. By random probability, some â€Å"phish mails† will happen to correspond with legitimate addresses where the user has a bank account (Lauren Bielski, pg-46). Fraudsters exercise phishing widely by using spam messages camouflaged as large banks (Citibank, Bank of America) or PayPal. These fraudsters copy the code and graphics from legitimate websites and use them on their own sites to create a legitimate-looking scam web page. They also link to the graphics on the legitimate sites to use on their own scam site. These pages look so genuine that most people cannot identify that they have visited to a scam site. Fraudsters are also put the text of a link to a genuine site in an e-mail but use the source code to links to own fake site. Pharming is executed when criminals misuse the susceptibility in the DNS server software that permits a hacker to obtain the domain name for a site, and to forward that website’s traffic to another web site. DNS servers resolve Internet names into their real addresses. In financial computers crime, Credit card fraud is the most frequently performed. Online thefts, particularly from banks, have reasonably been a cause of alarm to authorities. In 1993 for the theft of ? 122,000 from the Agricultural Bank of China, one convicted hacker, Shi Biao, was even executed. The more complex crimes include using the Internet to manipulate information. The posting incorrect financial information in cyberspace typically takes place for reasons of fraudulent profit making, which is very different from insider dealing where someone uses valuable and confidential information to trade in company shares before that information becomes wide spread available. Inaccurate information, on the other hand, is aimed at falsely inflating or lessening share values. This helps to sell with considerable profit or buy more cheaply. One vastly publicized example of this took place in 2000 when a securities trader based in Houston, Fred Moldofsky, issued nineteen false press releases claiming that Lucent Technologies, the world’s leading Telecom company, expected its earnings to fall short of market expectations, causing Lucent’s share price to fall by 3. 6 per cent during march in that year. He was found guilty of securities fraud a year after (Jason Whittaker; pg: 238). As everyone knows, the recent downturn in the web world has hit the stock market, especially the NASDAQ, hard lately. According to one report, online use of credit cards is rising over 50% a year in the United States and Internet spending is also on climbing. Though Internet credit card use has a long way to go, and while consumers increasingly prefer to shop online, but they are reluctant to provide credit card details on the Internet, under the apprehension that someone will obtain the information and use it to make fraudulent purchases (Kevin Blair; pg: 55). Lottery scams are very widespread on the Internet. Even if a person never entered a lottery, he/ she receive an email containing authentic information that he has won a prize. When a person shows interest then he was told to send some % of money to claim the prize. These e-mails are very well copied from authentic lottery system so that normally people get attracted. As an intelligent Internet user, one must ask for legal and bank information. It must be noted that in any transaction, amount should deducted from money being transferred. The pyramid schemes are another way to cheat people who want to earn online. They assure you money in return for the number of people you employ to join the scheme. Person will receive an email describing attractive earning details. But these claims are misleading. Moreover, pyramid schemes are unlawful. Another type of scam, Click fraud takes place when publicity network associates force paid views or clicks to ads on their own websites using Spy ware, the affiliate is then paid a commission on the cost-per-click that was falsely created. Affiliate programs such as Goggle’s Ad sense capability pay high commissions that drive the creation of bogus clicks. In international modem dialing, lots of consumers connect to the Internet using a modem calling a local telephone number. Some web sites, normally containing adult content, use international dialing to ploy consumers into paying to view content on their web site. Often these sites claim to be free and advertise that there is no need of credit card. These fraudsters provoke the user to download a â€Å"viewer† or â€Å"dialer† to allow them to view the substance. Once the program is downloaded it disconnects the computer from the Internet and proceeds to dial an international long distance or premium rate number. An international block is recommended to put off this, but in the U. S. and Canada, calls to the Caribbean can be dialed with a â€Å"1† and a three-digit area code, so such numbers, as well as â€Å"10-10 dial-round† phone company prefixes, can avoid an international block. Various procedures to hold back Internet fraud are presently being contemplated by industry experts. Most effectual and practical measures are increasing investor education and awareness, increasing the SEC’s â€Å"firepower,† increasing penalties and jail time for offenders, furthering coordination of federal and state efforts, and creating a â€Å"seal of approval† for traders and brokers. Lacking an improved effort in a combination of some or all of the anticipated solutions, Internet stock fraudsters will carry on to take advantage of the â€Å"easy pickings† created by Internet investors (Byron D.Hittle, pg:-165). The SEC is attentive of the current and future threats posed by Internet fraudsters. Federal statutes provide defrauded investors personal grounds of action for illegal falsification, and state enforcement agencies that keep an eye on the securities markets offer some protection against Internet fraud. But due to the immensity of both the securities markets and cyberspace, these protections fall dolefully short of successfully curbing Internet fraud (Byron D. Hittle, pg 165). The mail and wire fraud statutes have developed and lengthened into powerful prosecutorial tools. During 1994, both the mail and wire fraud statutes were expanded when Congress propagated the SCAMS Act as a means of skirmishing telemarketing ploys directed at the elderly. The SCAMS Act acted in response to the growing risk of new schemes and the increasing use of private carriers in such schemes by amending the federal mail fraud statute to cover not only the United States Postal Service but also private interstate commercial carriers (e.g. , UPS, FedEx, DHL). The SCAMs Act also particularly criminalized telemarketing fraud, finally, the SCAMS Act increased the penalties for conviction for mail and wire fraud schemes targeted at individuals aged fifty five and above. The mail and wire fraud statutes have been used as a â€Å"first line of defense,† that is, a â€Å"stopgap† device which permits the prosecution of a newly conceived of fraud until such time that Congress enacts particularized legislation to cope up with the new fraud. The mail and wire fraud statutes have thus been referred to as a â€Å"secret weapon† in the possession of federal prosecutors ( Anne S. Dudley, pg: 1025). Governing securities activities in this contemporary frontier is a flexible set of laws accepted more than a half-century before the increase of the Internet. Enacted in the 1930’s, the antifraud provisions of the federal securities laws declare it illegal to make a material misstatement or omission of fact, or to employ a manipulative or deceptive device, in connection with a securities transaction. These same laws authorize criminal prosecution when the conduct involved is â€Å"willful† (Richard H. Walker,pg:- 405). The FBI and police agencies wide-reaching have people allocated to fight Internet fraud; Since February 1999, when the Department of Justice recognized its Internet Fraud Initiative, the federal government has been intensifying its efforts to merge criminal prosecution with coordinated analysis and investigation as part of a comprehensive approach to warfare Internet fraud. Similarly, it is very difficult to enforce law against online fraud. It is hard to notice. Investigations are hindered by the difficulties related with recognizing and locating the individuals and entities in charge for the online frauds. Other obstacles are the relative lack of physicality involved in online fraud makes difficult issues of personal jurisdiction, service of process, and the freezing of assets to secure them for consumer redress. Compliance monitoring of online conduct is necessary, but entails an extensive and ongoing commitment of investigative proficiency and other resources. The resources required to examine an online bar imposed against a particular defendant, who by now may have metamorphosed or otherwise masked his or her online, corporate, or individual identity, are extraordinary and likely much similar to the costs associated with finding one very small spine in one very outsized barn full of hay. These burdens and others considerably impact the procedures and budgets of federal Internet prosecutors like the FTC and can outstrip the resources of state and local law enforcement agencies (Emile Loza, pg: 55). In spite of laws made by government to control Internet fraud, it is responsibility of users to be vigilant and knowledgeable at their end. Most people find it hard to believe that they could become victims of fraud, but one should never undervalue the cleverness of tricksters who make money by misleading others. State and federal laws and agencies have inadequate power to guard customers from Internet fraud. The consumer must keep on alert to the likelihood of fraud. One must be careful about giving out precious individual data online such as Social Security number, credit-card number, or password. Criminals have been identified to send messages in which they make believe to be a systems administrator or Internet service provider representative in order to convince people online that they should reveal valuable personal data. Internet is an enormous new terrain for crooked marketers. As the Internet is used to perform many activities, which were earlier done by manually, these encourage swindlers to involve in deceptive and misleading promotions. Swindlers are paying attention to the Internet because they find this media is a superb way to reach thousands of consumers inexpensively, quickly, and secretly. Few limitations exist on the Internet, making it easy to place deceiving or misleading information online. It is a major challenge for consumers to judge the accuracy and reliability of online information. References: 1) Anne S. Dudley,Daniel F. Schubert . 2001. Mail and Wire Fraud. Journal Title: American Criminal Law Review. Volume: 38. Issue: 3. Page Number: 1025. 2) Byron D. Hittle. 2001. An Uphill Battle: The Difficulty of Deterring and Detecting Perpetrators of Internet Stock Fraud. Journal Title: Federal Communications Law Journal. Volume: 54. Issue: 1. Page Number: 165. 3) David M. Levine, Richard H. Walker. 2002. You’ve Got Jail†: Current Trends in Civil and Criminal Enforcement of Internet Securities Fraud. Journal Title: American Criminal Law Review. Volume: 38. Issue: 3. Page Number: 405. 4) Emile Loza . 2002. Publication Information: Article Title: Internet Fraud: Federal Trade Commission Prosecutions of Online Conduct. Journal Title: Communications and the Law. Volume: 23. Issue: 2. Page Number: 55. 5) Jason Whittaker . 2004. The Cyberspace Handbook. Publisher: Routledge. Place of Publication: London. Page Number: 254. 6) Julia K. Cronin, Amanda R. Evansburg, Sylvia Rae Garfinkle, Securities Fraud. Journal Title: American Criminal Law Review. Volume: 38. Issue: 3. Page Number: 1277. 7) Kevin Blair. 2001. Moving Fast: Competition Heats Up on Credit Card Security. Journal Title: ABA Banking Journal. Volume: 93. Issue: 4. Page Number: 63. 8) Lauren Bielski . 2004. Phishing Phace-Off: Online Fraudsters and Vendors Do Battle to Gain Control of Electronic Information. Meanwhile, Incidents Rise and Consumer Confidence Suffers. Journal Title: ABA Banking Journal. Volume: 96. Issue: 9. Page Number: 46.